|
一、佛陀和佛教的创立 I. BUDDHA AND THE ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM 1问：什么是佛教？ 答：佛教，广义地说，它是一种宗教，包括它的经典、仪式、 习惯、教团的组织等等；狭义地说，它就是佛所说的言教；如果用佛教固有的术语来说，应当叫做佛法（Buddha Dhamma )。 l Q: What is Buddhism？ A: Buddhism, in a general sense, is a religion with its canonical literature, rites, customs, Sangha Order (congregational organization) etc.; more specifically, it is the Buddhas teachings, and with this specific meaning it should be termed the Buddha Dhamma. 2问："法”是什么意思？ 答：“法”字的梵语是达磨（Dharma)。佛教对这个字的解释是： “任持自性、轨生物解。”这就是说，每一事物必然保持它自 己特有的性质和相状，有它一定轨则，使人看到便可以了解 是何物。例如水，它保持着它的湿性，它有水的一定轨则， 使人一见便生起水的了解；反过来说，如果一件东西没有湿 性，它的轨则不同于水的轨则，便不能生起水的了解。所以 佛教把一切事物都叫做“法”。佛经中常见到的“一切法”、 “诸法”字样，就是“一切事物”或“宇宙万有”的意思。 照佛教的解释，佛根据自己对一切法如实的了解而宣示出来 的言教，它本身也同样具有“任持自性、轨生物解”的作 用，所以也叫做法。 2 Q: What is "Dhamma"？ A: "Dharma" in Sanskrit ("Dhamma" in Pali) means "retaining ones own nature, so that it can be recognized". That is to say, everything has its own attributes and appearance (S. prakrti and laksana, P. pakati and lakkhana) and maintains its own properties, by which people can perceive it as what it is. For instance, water maintains its property of wetness and acts according to its fixed track, so people recognize it as water when they see it. Conversely, when something is devoid of wetness and obey different rules from water, there then can be no conception of water. Therefore, Buddhism views everything as "dhamma". The terms "all dhammas", "each dhamma" appearing in Buddhist canons indicate "all things" or "universal existence". According to this interpretation, the discourses delivered by the Buddha based on his own empirical comprehension of dhammas are also "Dhamma" since they hold true to the principle of "retaining its own nature, so that it can be recognized." 3问：佛是神吗？ 答：不，佛不是神。他是公元前六世纪时代的人，有名有姓， 他的名字是悉达多（S. Siddhartha, P. Siddhattha )，他的姓是 乔达摩（S. Gautama, P. Gotama )。因为他属于释迦（Sūkya ) 族，人们又称他为释迦牟尼，意思是释迦族的圣人。 3 Q: Is the Buddha a deity？ A: No, the Buddha is not a deity. He was a man who lived in the 6th century BC. He had his own given and family names, his given name being Siddhattha (S. Siddhartha) and his family name Gotama (S. Gautama). As he belonged to the Sakya clan, people also called him Sakyamuni, meaning a sage of the Sakyas. 4问：为什么称他为佛呢？佛的意义是什么？ 答：“佛”字是“佛陀”的简称，是Buddha的音译（如果用今天 的汉语音译，应当是“布达”），佛陀的意义是"觉者“或“智 者”。“佛陀”是印度早就有了的字，但佛教给它加了三种涵义：（1 )正觉（对一切法的性质相状，无增无减地、如实 地觉了）；（2)等觉或遍觉（不仅自觉，即自己觉悟，而且能 平等普遍地觉他，即使别人觉悟）；（3 )圆觉或无上觉（自 觉觉他的智慧和功行都已达到最高的、最圆满的境地)。 4 Q: Why is the Buddha called "Fo" in Chinese？ What does it mean？ A: "Fo" is the abbreviation for "Fotuo" which was used to translate the word "Buddha". (The characters used for "Fotuo" were pronounced "buda" at the time of translation.) Buddha means "an enlightened one" or "an awakened one". The term "Buddha" existed in India from the earliest times, but Buddhism has attributed three additional connotations to the term. There are as follows: (1) enlightenment (Sambodhi, which means thouroughly realizing the properties and appearance of all dhammas as they are); (2) perfect enlightenment (Samma-sambodhi, which means not only enlightening oneself but also equally and universally enlightening others); (3) supreme or paramount enlightenment (Anuttara samma-sambodhi, which means ones wisdom and achievement have reached the highest and the most perfect sphere in enlightening both oneself and others). 5问：除释迦牟尼外，有没有另外的佛？ 答：佛教认为过去有人成佛，未来也会有人成佛，一切人都有得 到觉悟的可能性，所以说：“一切众生，皆有佛性，有佛性 者，皆得成佛。” 5 Q: Are there any other Buddhas besides Sakyamuni？ A: Buddhism claims that there were people who attained Buddhahood in the past, and there will be people to become Buddhas in the future. It is possible for everybody to achieve enlightenment. Therefore, "All living beings have the Buddha-nature, everyone with the Buddha-nature may attain Buddhahood." 6问：如来佛是不是释迦牟尼？还是另一人？ 答：“如来”这个名词是从梵语Tathāgata译出来的。“如”字就 是“真如”（tathatā),即一切法（事物）的真实状况，它又 包含“如实”（Yathābhūtaṃ )的意义。佛经对“如来”的解 释是：“乘真如之道而来”，又说“如实而来”。“如来”是一 个通用名词，它是“佛陀”的异名。如释迦牟尼佛，可以称 释迦牟尼如来；阿弥陀佛，可以称阿弥陀如来。 6 Q: Is the Chinese term "Rulai Fo" identical to Sakyamuni or is he somebody else？ A: "Rulai" was translated from the Sanskrit word "Tathagata". "Ru" means "suchness" (tathata), or "according to the reality" (Yathabhūtam), i.e. the ultimate reality of all dhammas, while "lai" means "come". "Rulai" (Tathagata) is interpreted in the Buddhist scriptures as "coming by the path of Tathagata" or "coming according to the reality". Tathagata is a general term and another name for "the Buddha". Thus Gotama Buddha can be called Gotama Tathagata, and Amita Buddha can be called Amita Tathagata. 7问：阿弥陀佛和释迦牟尼佛不是一个人吗？ 答：不是。阿弥陀佛是另外一个世界上的佛。阿弥陀佛是梵语 Amitābha的音译，意义是“无量的光明”。 7. Q: Are Amita Buddha and Gotama Buddha not one and the same？ A: No, Amita Buddha or Amitabha is the Buddha of another world. The Chinese term "Amituofo" is the transliteration from Sanskrit of "Amitabha", meaning "boundless light". 8问：“南无佛”是什么意思？为什么读起来是“那摩佛” ？ 答：“南无”是梵语Namo的音译，念成“那摩”，是保持原来古 代的读音。现代广东、福建一部分地区，仍保持这个古音。 它的意义是“敬礼”。今天印度人相见，互道"那摩悉对”， 就是说：“敬礼了”。 8 Q: What is the meaning of "Nanmo Fo"(南无佛)？ Why is it pronounced as "Namo Fo"(那摩佛)？ A: "Nanmo" is the transliteration of the Sanskrit "Namo". The Chinese characters “南无” were used since their pronunciation was similar with "namo" in ancient times when this term was introduced into China. Such a pronunciation is still preserved now in parts of Chinas Guangdong and Fujian provinces. "Namo" means salutation or homage. Even today, when Indians meet, they say "Namaste" to each other, that is "Homage to you". 9问：释迦牟尼的一生可以简略介绍一下么？ 答：可以。释迦牟尼的时代，约当公元前六世纪中叶，正 是我国春秋时代，与孔子同时。他是当时迦毗罗国 (Kapilavatthu )国王的长子。父亲名净饭(Suddhodana )， 母亲名摩耶（Māyā)。摩耶夫人生产前，根据当时习俗， 回到母家去，路过蓝毗尼花园（Lumbinī )，在树下休息的时候，生下了悉达多王子。 9 Q: What is known about the life of Sakyamuni？ A: Well, Sakyamuni lived around the 6th century BC, equivalent to the Spring and Autumn Period in China, and was a contemporary of Confucius. He was the eldest son of the King of Kapilavatthu. His father was named Suddhodana; his mother, Maya. Queen Maya gave birth to Prince Siddhattha on the way to her parents' home while taking a rest under a tree in Lumbini Grove, since, according to the custom prevailing in India at that time, women should go back to their parents' home for child bearing. 10问：蓝毗尼花园现在还有遗址留存下来吗？ 答：公元七世纪时，我国玄奘法师曾到过蓝毗尼。根据他 的记载，他曾经看到在他之前八百多年阿育王（Aśoka) 在那里建立的石柱，标志着佛陀诞生之处，但当时石柱已被雷击破，柱头倒在地下，已经是衰落的情景了。后来由于没有人能够识得柱上的文字，因此佛陀诞生的地 址久已湮没无闻。直到1897年才被人发现了阿育王的石柱，考古家认识出上面的文字，这才发掘出蓝毗尼园 的遗址，在附近并且发掘出古代的市镇，其中有些可以 相信是属于当时的迦毗罗城的。今天尼泊尔政府已经把 这个地方作为圣地加以建设和保护。 10 Q: Are there any vestiges of Lumbini Grove remaining today？ A: During the 7th century AD, Tipitakacariya Xuan Zang (Hsuan Tsang) of China visited Lumbinī Grove. According to his account, he saw the stone pillar erected there by King Aśoka about 800 years before, marking the birthplace of the Buddha. The site at that time, however, was in a state of desolation, the pillar having been struck by lightning and the top having fallen down onto the ground. Subsequently, the birthplace of the Buddha sank into oblivion because nobody could read the letters on the pillar. It was not until 1897 when the Aśoka pillar was re-discovered, archeologists deciphered the inscriptions and the ravaged ruins of Grove were excavated. Some ancient settlements were also excavated in the vicinity of that site, part of which may have belonged to the old city of Kapilavatthu. Today, the government of Nepal has proclaimed it as Holy Land and undertaken necessary reconstruction and protection. 11问：释迦牟尼幼年教养情况是怎样？ 答：摩耶夫人产后不久就死了。幼年时代的释迦牟尼是由他 的姨母波阇波提夫人（Prajāpati)养育的。他自小从婆罗门学者们学习文学、哲学、算学等等，知识很广博。又从武士们学习武术，是一个骑射击剑的能手。他父亲净饭王因为他天资聪慧，相貌奇伟，对他期望很大，希望他继承王位后，建功立业，成为一个“转轮王”（统一天下的君主）。 11. Q: How was Sakyamuni educated in his childhood？ A: Queen Maya died soon after giving birth. Young Sakyamuni was brought up by his aunt (his mothers sister) Princess Prajapati. As a child he began to learn literature，philosophy, arithmetic and so on from Brahmin scholars and gained a broad and profound knowledge. He also learned martial arts from warriors and became a master at riding, shooting and fencing. Because of his great intelligence and striking features, his father, king Suddhodana, hoped that he would become a universal ruler (Raja Cakkavattin, a king who could unify the whole world) and perform meritorious services after he succeeded to the throne. 12问：那么，他后来为什么不继承王位呢？ 答：悉达多王子在幼年的时候，就有沉思的习惯，世间许多现 象，给他看到，都容易引起他的感触和深思：饥渴困乏、在烈日下耕田的农人，绳索鞭打、口喘汗流拖着犁头耕地的牛，蛇虫鸟兽弱肉强食的情景，衰丑龙钟的老人，辗转呻吟的病人，亲朋哭泣送葬中的死人，这些都促使他思索着一个问题——如何解脱世界的苦痛。他读过的吠陀书（Veda,婆 罗门经典）不能解决他的问题。他学到的知识和他未来的王位、权力也都不能解决他的问题。于是他很早就有了出家的念头，后来终于舍弃了王位。 12 Q: Why didn’t he succeed to the throne later on？ A: Prince Siddhattha in his childhood developed the habit of meditating. Many phenomena he observed touched him strongly and made him think hard: e.g. the hungry, thirsty and exhausted peasants working under the scorching sun, panting and sweating cattle being flogged as they plough, the struggle among snakes, insects, birds and beasts under the law of the jungle, weak and ugly old people, the moaning and suffering sick, the dead in funeral processions with their families and friends weeping behind. All these presented him with a problem: how to deliver the world from suffering. Neither the Veda he had read nor the knowledge he had acquired, nor his future throne and power could solve this problem. Therefore, he harbored the idea of renouncing the world in his early days, and finally he relinquished his throne. 13问：他父亲怎么会让他出家呢？ 答：净饭王发觉了他儿子的心思后，曾经想过各种办法防止他， 特别是企图从生活的享受上羁縻他。悉达多王子十六岁时，净饭王便为他娶了邻国的王女耶输陀罗（Yasodharā)为妃，生了一个儿子叫罗怙罗（Rāhula)。但是这一切都没有能够阻止他，终于在一天夜深人静的时候，他偷偷地出了国城，进入一个森林中，换去王子的衣服，剃去须发，成为一个修道者。关于他出家时的年龄，有两种不同记载，一说是十九岁，一说是二十九岁。 13 Q: How could his father agree to his renunciation？ A: Having found out what his son had in mind, King Suddhodana tried many ways to detain him, especially by surrounding him with worldly pleasures. When Siddhattha was only 16 years old, King Suddhodana arranged for him to marry Princess Yasodhara from a neighboring state. Yasodhara bore him a son named Rahula. But all this was in vain. He finally slipped out of the capital city in the still of a night. He entered a forest, took off his princely clothes and, having shaven his head and beard, became a wandering mendicant. Regarding his age at the time of renunciation, there are two different accounts —one says nineteen, and the other twenty-nine. 14问：出家以后的情形怎样？ 答：他父亲曾尽力劝他回去无效，只好在亲族中选派五个人随从他一起，这五个人的名字是：㤭陈如（Kaundiya, P. Kondanna )’ 跋堤（Bhadrika, P. Bhaddiya )，跋波（Vaspa, P. Vappa )，摩诃男（Mahanama, P. Mahanama )，阿说示 (Asvajit, P. Assaji )。悉达多王子和他的侍者们先后寻访当时三个有名的学者，从他们学道，但都不能满足他的要求。于是他知道当时哲学思想中没有真正解脱之法，便离开了他们，走到尼连禅河（Nairanjana, P ：Neranjara，现在叫做 Lilaian )岸边的树林中，和那里的苦行人（极端刻苦修行的人）在一起。为了寻求解脱，他尝够了艰苦辛酸，坚持不懈，经历六年之久。但是结果徒劳无功，方才悟到苦行是无益 的。他于是走到尼连禅河里去沐浴，洗去了六年的积垢，随后受了一个牧女供养的牛奶，恢复了气力。当时随从他的五个人见到他的情景，以为他放弃了信心和努力，便离开了他，前往波罗奈城（Benares )去继续他们的苦行。王子于是一个人走到一棵毕钵罗（Pippala)树下，铺上了吉祥草，向着东方盘腿坐 着，发誓说：“我今如不证到无上大觉，宁可让此身粉碎，终不起此座。“他便这样在树下思维解脱之道，终于在一个夜里，战胜了最后的烦恼麂障，获得了彻底觉悟而成了佛陀。 14 Q: What about his life after he renounced the world？ A: Having tried in vain to persuade him to return, his father chose five men from his clan to accompany him. They were Kaundinya, Bhadrika, Vaspa, Mahanama, and Aŝvajit (P. Kondanna, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, Assaji). Prince Siddhattha and his followers successively paid visits to three famous scholars and learned from them, but none of them could satisfy his quest. When he realized that no real path of deliverance (or absolution) was to be found in the philosophical thought of that time, he left for a forest on the banks of the Neranjara river, now the Lilaian, and lived there with other ascetics. In his search for emancipation, he went through suffering and pain for six years. However, since it proved fruitless, he began to understand that austerities were to no avail. So he went to take a bath in the Neranjara River, cleaning off all the dirt of six years. Then, after accepting the milk gruel offered by a herdswoman, his strength was restored afresh. When his five followers saw this, they thought he had abandoned his faith and spiritual efforts, so they left him for Benares City (P. Bārāṇasī) to continue their ascetic practices. The Prince then went alone to a Pippala tree and made a seat with auspicious grass (kusa) under the tree. Sitting down with his legs crossed and facing the east he vowed, "Now should I fail to attain supreme enlightenment, I would rather have my body decompose than rise from this seat." In such a manner, he commenced meditating on absolution, and finally one night defeated the moral affliction and Maras temptations (kilesa and Mara), achieved complete enlightenment, thereby becoming a Buddha. 问：释迦牟尼成佛处，现有遗迹留存吗？ 答：释迦牟尼成佛处，自古称为菩提场或菩提伽耶（Buddhagāyā)， 那里的毕钵罗树，因为佛坐在树下成道的缘故，得到了菩提树之名。从此，所有毕钵罗树都叫做菩提树。“菩提”就是“觉" 的意思。菩提伽耶在今天印度比哈尔省伽耶城（Gayā)的南郊。那棵菩提树在二千数百年中曾两次遭到斫伐，一次遭风拔，但 都重生了新芽，现在的菩提树是原来那棵树的曾孙。树下释迦 牟尼坐处有石刻的金刚座。树的东面有一座宏伟庄严的塔寺，名叫大菩提寺，至今约有一千八百多年的历史，附近还有许多 佛的遗迹和古代石刻与建筑。1956年印度比哈尔省政府为了这个圣地的建设和管理，设立了一个国际性的咨询委员会。中国佛教协会接受了邀请，指派了两名代表参加该会。 15 Q: Are there any vestiges remaining of the site where Sakyamuni became a Buddha？ A: The site where Sakyamuni attained Buddhahood has been known as the Place of Enlightenment or Buddhagaya ever since. The Pippala tree there, as well as that kind of tree in general later became known as Bodhi tree. Bodhi means enlightenment. Buddhagaya is situated in the southern suburbs of Gaya City in Bihar Pradesh of India today. In the course of more than twenty centuries, the Bodhi tree was twice chopped down and once blown over, but always sprouted again. The present Bodhi tree is a great grandson of the original one. At the plot where the Buddha sat under the tree is a stone-carved diamond pedestal (Vajrasana). To the east of the tree is a majestic thūpa (S. stūpa) temple known as Mahabodhi Arama with a history of over 18 centuries, and nearby are a number of traces of the Buddha and ancient carved stones and constructions. In 1956, the government of Bihar Pradesh appointed an international advisory committee to supervise the construction and administration of the Holy Land. At its invitation the Buddhist Association of China, sent two delegates to that committee. 16问：释迦牟尼成佛后的事迹，可以简略地谈一谈吗？ 答：释迦牟尼成佛的年龄，也有不同的记载，有的说三十岁，有的说三十五岁。此后五十年（或四十五年）中，直到他八十岁逝世前，他没有间断过他的说法工作。他到处游行，向大众宣示他自己证悟的真理。他最初到波罗奈城去找离开了他的五个侍者，为他们说法。佛教把佛陀第一次说法，叫做“初转法轮”。 16 Q: Would you please give a brief account regarding his life after Sakyamuni attained Buddhahood？ A: There are different versions regarding the age at which Sakyamuni attained enlightenment, some quote it as thirty and some as thirty-five. For fifty (or forty-five) years after that, until the end of his life at the age of 80, he never stopped preaching his doctrine. He traveled widely, preaching to the public the truth he had perceived. At the outset, he went to Benares (P. Bārāṇasī) to look for his five departed followers and preached the truth to them. The first sermon of the Buddha is called "the initial turning of the wheel of Dhamma" (S. Dharmacakra pravartana, P. Dhammacakkappavattana) in Buddhism. 17问：“转法轮"是什么意思？ 答：“轮”（cakka),是印度古代战争中用的一种武器，它的形状 像个轮子。印度古代有一种传说，征服四方的大王叫做转轮王，他出生的时候，空中自然出现此轮，预示他的前途无 敌。这里以轮来比喻佛所说的法。佛的法轮出现于世，一切不正确的见解、不善的法都破碎无余，所以把说法叫做转法轮。佛初转法轮处是鹿野苑（Sūmūth )，在今天波罗奈 城（Benares)。经过近代的发掘，鹿野苑发现了不少有价值的文物。有阿育王的石柱，有公元四世纪石刻的佛初转法轮 像等等，并且发掘到古代塔寺的遗址。鹿野苑现有佛寺、博 物馆和图书馆，都是近几十年来陆续兴建起来的。佛初转法 轮处的鹿野苑，和佛诞生处的蓝毗尼园、佛成道处的菩提伽 耶、佛逝世处的拘尸那伽（S. Kuŝinagara, P. Kusinara ),是 佛教四大圣迹。值得指出的是：近代学者们对这些圣迹以及 其他一些古迹的发掘和修复，主要都是根据我国古代高僧法显、玄奘等的记载。 17 Q: What does "turning the wheel of Dhamma" (Dhammacakkap- pavattana) mean？ A: Cakka (wheel) was a wheel-like weapon used in wars in ancient India. There was an old legend in India that the raja (king) that conquered the world would be the Rajacakkavattin, i.e. "The wheel-turning king". At the time of his birth, a wheel appeared in the sky, prophesying that he would be unconquerable in the future. In Buddhism the wheel is used as a metaphor of the Dhamma preached by the Buddha. Once the Buddhas Dhammacakka emerged, all the wrong thinking and evil things would be smashed and vanish. Hence the preaching of Dhamma is called Dhammacakkappavattana (turning the wheel of Dhamma). The Buddhas initial turning of the wheel of Dhamma took place at Sarnath Mrgadava (Deer Park) in present-day Benares. Through the recent excavations, quite a few valuable relics have been discovered at Sarnath, including the King Aśoka stone pillar, stone-engraved images of the Buddhas first turning of the wheel of Dhamma dating from the 4th century AD etc. Even the ruins of the ancient thūpa temple were unearthed. Buddhist temples, museums and a library now standing there were built over the last few decades. There are four places regarded as the holy places of Buddhism: (1)Sarnath, where the Buddha initially turned the wheel of Dhamma, (2)Lumbini Grove, where the Buddha was born, (3) Buddhagaya, where the Buddha attained enlightenment, and (4) Kusinara, where the Buddha passed away. It is worthy of note that modern scholars excavated and repaired the holy places and other historical sites mainly on the basis of the records of the ancient Chinese pilgrims like Fa Xian (Fa Hsien) and Xuan Zang (Hsuan Tsang). 18问：佛初次说法的地方为什么要比其他说法的地方看得重要呢？ 答：佛在鹿野苑初转法轮这件事是佛教的一件大事。从那时起， 开始建立了佛教；从那时起，开始具足了三宝。 18 Q: Why is the site of the Buddhas first sermon looked upon as more important than other sermon sites？ A: The Buddhas initial turning of the wheel of Dhamma at Sarnath was a great event in Buddhism. At that time, Buddhism was established; and after that, the Three Gems (Tiratana) came into existence. 19问：“三宝”是什么？ 答：佛陀是佛宝。佛所说的法是法宝。佛的出家弟子的团体—— 僧伽是僧宝。称之为宝，是因为它能够令大众止恶行善、离苦得乐，是极可尊贵的意思。佛初转法轮，㤭陈如等五人都归依佛，出家为弟子，于是形成了僧伽。所以说，从那时起开始具足了三宝。 19 Q: What are the Three Gems (Tiratana)？ A: The Three Gems are the Gem of the Buddha, the enlightened one, the Gem of Dhamma, the teachings given by the Buddha, and the Gem of Sangha, the Order of the Buddhas monastic disciples. These three are called gems (ratana) because they can lead people to stop doing evil and to perform kindness, to free themselves from suffering and to gain happiness. The title of "The Three Gems" also shows the great value placed on them. When the Buddha initially turned the wheel of Dhamma, Kondanna and others, five of them in all, followed the Buddha, renounced lay life and became the Buddhas disciples, thus forming the Sangha Order. Therefore, the Three Gems have been cherished since that time. 20 Q: 问：什么叫做归依？ 答：归依的意思是：身心归向它、依靠它。归依三宝的人是佛教 徒。“归依”也可以写成“皈依”，“皈”与“归”的读音和 意义相同。 20 Q: What is the meaning of “abiding by the Three Gems" ("Ti-saranam gacchami")？ A: Ti-saranam gacchami means that one abides by the Three Gems with ones heart and soul. Those who have gone to and relied on the Three Gems are Buddhists. 21问：佛在世的时候，归依的人多吗？ 答:是的，佛初转法轮后从鹿野苑到摩揭陀国（Magadha )去的 一路上，受到他的教化而归依的人就很多。其中有拜火教的 婆罗门姓迦叶的三兄弟，都改变了原来的信仰，率领他们的弟子一千多人归依了佛教。佛到了摩揭陀国首都王舍城 (Rūjagaha)后，归依的人更多。其中最有名的出家弟子有舍利弗（Siriputta )、摩诃目犍连（Matemoggallŝna )、摩诃迦叶 (Mahakassapa )等人。后来佛回到故乡去，他的异母弟难陀 (Nanda )、堂兄弟阿难陀（Ananda )、提婆达多（Devadatta ) 和他儿子罗怙罗等都随他出了家。还有宫廷中一个剃发工奴 优波离（Upūli)也出家加入了僧团，后来成为有名的佛教戒 律学大师。佛的姨母波阇波提也归依了佛，是第一个出家女 弟子。至于不出家而归依三宝的弟子则为数更多。佛的出家 弟子，男的叫比丘(bhikkhu),女的叫做比丘尼(bhikkhuni); 在家弟子，男的叫做邬波索迦（upūsaka),女的叫做邬波斯迦（upūsikū )，合称为四众弟子。 21 Q: Were there many people who came and followed the Buddha during his lifetime？ A: Yes.〇n the way from Sarnath to Magadha State after the Buddhas first sermon, many people were converted to follow his teachings. Among them were three brothers, Brahmins, by the name of Kassapa. They had been Zoroastrians, but were now converted and brought along with them more than one thousand of their followers to be converted to Buddhism. After the Buddha arrived in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha, many more people were converted, including some who were to become prominent disciples, like Sariputta, Mahamoggallana and Mahakassapa. Afterwards, when the Buddha returned to his native land, a number of his relatives: his younger half brother Nanda, his cousins Ananda and Devadatta, his son Rahula became monastic disciples. Among them, there was a barber named Upali, who had served the royal family, and later became a famous master of Buddhist disciplines (Vinaya bhanaka). The Buddhas aunt Prajapati also followed to become the first female monastic disciple of the Buddha. Besides, even more devotees were converted to the faith without renouncing the home life. Therefore, the Buddhas disciples consist of Bhikkhu (monks) and Bhikkhuni (nuns), who form the Buddhist monastic order; and Upasaka and Upasika, who are the male and female lay followers; together they are known as the four groups of disciples. 22问：释迦牟尼一生游行教化的区域，是哪些地方？ 答：根据记载和发掘的资料，佛自己足迹所到的地方，主要是中印度。他的弟子们分到四方游化，可能更远一些。但是斯里兰卡和缅甸都有佛曾经到过并留下足印的传说。佛居住的 地方，以摩揭陀国的王舍城和拘萨罗国（Kosala)的舍卫城 (Sūvatthi)的时间为最多。在王舍城外有一个竹林，是频毗娑罗王（Bimbisara )献给佛和僧众居住的，后人称为竹林精 舍。在舍卫城有一个林园是当地一个富商须达多（Sudatta) 和拘萨罗国王子祇陀（Jeta )共同献给佛的，后人称为祇园精 舍。佛常往来两处，所以竹林、祇园并为说法的重地。王舍城南面的灵鹫山（Gijjhakuta )也是佛常和弟子们说法的地方。佛逝世前由王舍城北行到毗舍离（Vesali )城（今印度比 哈尔省境内），又由毗舍离向西北行，最后到了拘尸那伽（今 印度联合省伽夏城Kasia )，佛是在拘尸那伽逝世的。现在佛 逝世处，发掘出佛遗体火化的地方和石刻的佛涅槃像以及其他古迹。印度政府为了纪念佛涅槃二千五百年，曾对这个圣 地予以必要的修复和建设。 22 Q: Where did Sakyamuni travel and preach during his life？ A: According to historical records and excavations, the Buddhas own footprints mainly covered Central India. His disciples, dispersed in all quarters, might have gone further afield. There are also legends in Sri Lanka and Myanmar about the Buddha visiting and leaving his footprints there. During the Buddhas lifetime, he resided for the most part in Rajagaha, in the states of Magadha and Savatthi in the state of Kosala. Outside Rajagaha was a bamboo forest, donated to the Buddha and his disciples by King Bimbisara, which later came to be known as Bamboo Grove Monastery (Veluvanaramaya). In Savatthi, there was a garden given to the Buddha jointly by a rich merchant, Sudatta, and Prince Jeta of Kosala. This garden was known later as Jeta Grove Monastery (Jetavanaramaya or Jetavana Anathapindikassa-arama). Since the Buddha used to travel between the two places, both became important sites for the promotion of his doctrines. Gijjhakūta Hill, situated south of Rajagaha, was another place frequented by the Buddha and his disciples for preaching. Prior to his death, the Buddha went northward from Rajagaha to Vesali (Bihar Pradesh in modern India). Then he turned northwest, and finally arrived at Kusinara (now Kasia in Uttar Pradesh, India) where he passed away (Parinibbana). In modern times, excavations have uncovered the site of his cremation, and discovered a stone- carved image of his nibbana as well as other relics. In commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddhas Nibbana (S. Nirvana), the government of India has done some essential repair and construction in the holy place. 23问：什么叫做“涅槃” ？ 答：现在暂不详细解答，这里可简单解释为“逝世”。 23 Q: What is "Nibbana"？ A: This will be fully explained later. It may be simply interpreted as death. 24问：佛涅槃前后的情形是怎样？ 答：佛在毗舍离城的时候，已经有了重病，在那里度过雨季后， 偕弟子们向西北走去，路上受了铁匠纯陀（Cunda)供献的 食品，病更加剧。最后走到拘尸那伽一条河边，洗了澡，在一处四方各有两棵娑罗树的中间安置了绳床，枕着右手侧身卧着。后来所有卧佛像（即佛涅槃像）都是这样的姿式。 佛告知弟子们将要涅槃，弟子都守候着。夜间有婆罗门学者须 跋陀罗（Subhadda)去见佛，阿难陀想挡住他，佛知道了，唤他到床前为他说法，于是须跋陀罗成了佛的最后的弟子。佛在毗舍离临出发前和在途中为弟子们作了多次的教诲，到了那天半夜逝世前又最后嘱咐弟子不要以为失去了导师，应当以法为师，要努力精进，不要放逸。 佛逝世后，遗体举行火化。摩揭陀国人和释迦族等八国将 佛的舍利分为八份，各在他们的本土上建塔安奉。其中摩揭陀 国安奉在菩提伽耶的一份，到公元前三世纪，被阿育王取出，分成许多份送到各地建塔。1898年，考古家在尼泊尔南境发 掘迦毗罗国故址，发现一舍利塔，塔内藏有石瓶石函等物；有一瓶放在铁和水晶层迭的函内，里面有黄金花，花上安放着佛骨。从函上刻的文字知道这就是释迦族供养的佛的舍利。 24 Q: What were the circumstances immediately before and after the Buddhas Nibbana？ A: The Buddha had been very sick when in Vesali. After the Rainy Season Retreat (Vassa) in Vesali he went with his disciples towards the northwest. On the way he had food offered by the blacksmith Cunda and became seriously ill. Finally he reached the bank of a river in Kusinara. After taking a bath he lay on his right side with his head resting on his right hand, on a hammock placed among four pairs of sala trees. Subsequently, all the recumbent (Sleeping) Buddha statues or the statues of the Buddhas Nibbana have been modeled in this posture. The Buddha informed his disciples of the approach of his Nibbana, and all his disciples watched over him. At night, a Brahmin scholar named Subhadda came to see the Buddha. When Ananda tried to stop him, the Buddha called Subhadda to his bedside and preached a discourse for him, so Subhadda became the last disciple of the Buddhas lifetime. From the time he left Vesali on the journey, the Buddha preached to his disciples many times and at midnight when he was about to die, he told them for the last time, "You should not think that you no longer have a teacher. Rather you should regard the teachings (Dhamma) as your teacher. Be diligent in striving for salvation. Never be indolent." After the Buddhas death, his body was cremated. The remains were divided into eight portions by Magadha, the Sakya, and other states and then enshrined in thūpas constructed in the eight states. By the 3rd century BC a portion of the Buddhas sarīra enshrined in Buddhagaya in Magadha was taken out by King Aśoka and was divided into many portions to be stored in thūpas in different places. In 1898, archeologists discovered a sarīra thūpa on the southern border of Nepal when they excavated an ancient location of Kapilavatthu. Inside the thūpa they found stone vases, urns and other articles. One of the vases was kept in an urn made of layers of iron and crystal. In the vase there was a golden flower with the Buddhas bones placed on it. The inscription on the urn indicates that this is the Buddhas sarīra enshrined by the Sakyas. 25问：舍利是什么？ 答：舍利（sarīra)就是遗体，但这个名称一般只用于佛和有德行 的出家人的遗体。 25 Q: What is "sarīra"？ A: "sarīra" means the remains of the dead, but this term is generally confined to the remains of the Buddha and other virtuous priests only. 26问：塔是作什么用的？ 答：“塔”又称“塔波”，是梵语Stūpa(P.Thūpa)省略的音译，完 整的音译是“窣堵波”，意义是“高显”或“坟”。塔一般是 藏舍利的，也有不藏舍利而作为标志纪念之用的。 26 Q: What is the function of a thūpa？ A: Thūpa (S. stūpa), rendered into Chinese as "Taw, "Tabo" or "Sudubo", means "tower" or "tomb". Thūpas are usually built for keeping sarīra, though some are for commemorative purposes. 27问：佛涅槃的年代，有没有不同的计算？ 答：关于佛涅槃的年代，东南亚佛教徒一般认为是公元前 545年，所以1956年和1957年各国都举行佛涅槃二千五百年 盛大纪念。我国关于佛涅槃年代有很多不同的说法，一般公认 的年代是公元前486年，与南传佛历相差59年。 27 Q: Is there agreement over the year of the Buddhas Parinibbana？ A: With regard to the year of the Buddhas Parinibbana, the Buddhists in Southeast Asia generally put it in the year 545 BC, so in 1956 and 1957 many countries ceremoniously observed the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddhas Parinibbana. In China, however, there are different opinions about the year of the Buddhas passing away, the generally acknowledged year being 486 BC, 59 years later than the Theravadin calendar of Southeast Asia. 28问：佛的涅槃日是哪一天？ 答：我国一般认为农历二月十五日是佛涅槃日，四月初八日是佛 诞生日，十二月初八日是佛成道日。南方各国则以公历五月 月圆日（相当于我国农历四月十五日）为佛节日（Vesakha)， 认为佛诞生、成道、涅槃都在这一天。 28 Q: What is the date ofthe Buddhas Parinibbana？ A: In China, the 15th of the second month of the lunar calendar is commonly accepted as the Day of the Buddhas Parinibbana, the 8th of the fourth month as the Buddhas birthday, and the 8th of the twelfth month as the Day of the Buddhas enlightenment. In South and Southeast Asian countries, however, the full moon day of May of the Gregorian calendar (corresponding to the 15th of the fourth month in the Chinese lunar calendar) is the Buddhist Holy Day called Vesakha (S. Vaiŝakya), which is regarded as the Day of the Buddhas birth, enlightenment, as well as Parinibbana. 29问：听了上面的谈话，对释迦牟尼佛的一生事迹已经有了轮廓 的了解。现在想请你谈一谈当时佛教创立的历史背景。 答：这是一个较难的问题，因为第一关于印度古代历史资料缺 乏，第二我自己在这方面少研究。但是我仍然愿意将一些我所知道的材料和所想到的线索，提供你参考、研究和判断。 29 Q: From what you have said we have learned the brief outline of the life of Sakyamuni Buddha. Would you now please give some historical background on the origin of Buddhism？ A: This is a rather difficult question, firstly, because there is a lack of materials on Indian history. Secondly, I haven’t studied this area very deeply. Yet I would like to share whatever information I have, as well as clues and leads in my mind for your further reference, research and judgment. 30问：很好。我认为，任何宗教和思想都是历史的产物，能够了解 一些当时社会的情况，是有助于对佛教的了解的。希望你就 几个主要的问题谈一谈，能说明一个大概就行了。 答：先从当时的形势谈起吧。你知道古代印度曾经有一个区域叫 做“中国”吗？ 30 Q: Good. I think all religions and ideologies are products of history. For better understanding of Buddhism, it would be helpful to learn something about the social circumstances of that time. I hope you can paint a sketch of its main points. A: Let us begin with the situation of that time. Do you know there was a region called the Middle Kingdom (Madhya Deŝa) in ancient India？ 31问：这倒不知道。那是在印度的什么地区？ 答：大约三千五百年到四千年前，雅利安（Arya)人逐渐由 中亚细亚进入印度河流域，征服了那里的土著民族，并 且吸收了他们的文明，在那里定居下来，建立了好些国 家。因为长期成为雅利安人政治文化的中心（也就是婆 罗门文明的中心），当时那个地区被称为"中国"（Madhya Deŝalo至于东方和南方的恒河流域的广大地区，则被称为是 化外的“边地”。但是到了释迦牟尼时代，形势有了很大的改 变。原来“中国”地方的国家已经开始衰落，而东南边地的 国家则勃然兴起。释迦牟尼居住最久、教化最盛的摩揭陀国就是当时新兴的霸国。这时候，文明的中心已经转移到摩揭 陀国的王舍城，拘萨罗国的舍卫城，跋耆国的毗舍离城等新 都市，其中王舍城尤为重要。 31 Q: I am afraid I don’t. In which part of India was it located？ A: About 3,500-4,000 years ago, with gradual migration from central Asia into the Indus Valley, the Aryans conquered the original inhabitants and settled there. They assimilated the aboriginal civilization and founded a number of states. For a long time afterward, this area was a political and cultural center of Brahmin civilization and of the Aryan people. Thus this region was called the Middle Kingdom (Madhya Deŝa). As to the vast areas of the eastern and southern Ganges Valley, these were called uncivilized "frontier" areas. However, by the time of Sakyamuni, a tremendous change had taken place. The states in the original Madhya Deŝa began to decline, while those in the south-eastern frontier began to prosper. Among them was Magadha, the newly emerging dominant state where Sakyamuni resided for the longest time and taught most extensively. The center of civilization by this time had shifted to the new cities: Rajagaha in Magadha, Savatthi in Kosala and Vesali in Vajji, among them Rajagaha being particularly important. 32问：这些新兴国家除了实力强盛之外，在社会、经济、文化方面 有没有什么特点？ 答：据我初步地研究，有三种情况值得一提:（1 )在种族问题上，矛盾的增多；（2)在经济问题上，社会生产力的发展；（3) 在思想上，反婆罗门教义的新思想的兴起。这三种情况都反映在“种姓制度”问题上。 32 Q: Apart from being powerful and prosperous, were there any particular characteristics in respect to social, economic and cultural spheres in these newly emerging states？ A: According to my preliminary study, there are three conditions which are worthy of notice: (1) the increasing ethnic conflicts; (2) the development of social productivity in the economy; and (3) the emergence of a new anti-Brahmanist trend of thought. All these three were reflected in the caste system. 33问：什么是种姓制度？ 答：种姓制度是雅利安人进入印度之后创立的。“种姓”这 个词儿是从梵语“Varna” ( P. Vanna )翻译过来的，它的 原来的字义是“颜色”或“品质”。照他们的说法，肤 色白的雅利安人是品质高贵的种族，深色皮肤的达罗毗荼（Dravida)族和其他土著民族是品质低贱的种族。这种 制度原来是用以划分雅利安人和非雅利安人的界限的。后来随着工作和职业的分化的发展，本来用以划分雅利安 人和非雅利安人的种姓差别，也在雅利安人自己中间起了反映，于是有四姓（四个种姓）的划分。最高的种姓是婆罗门（Brahmana),是掌握祭祀文教的僧侣阶级（到 后来婆罗门也可以当国王）；其次是刹帝利（Ksatriya), 是掌握军政的国王和武士阶级；其次是吠舍（Vaiŝya)， 是商人、手工业者，也有从事农耕的农民阶级；最下的种姓 是首陀罗（Ŝūdra),是农人、牧人、仆役和奴隶。前三者是 雅利安人，后者是非雅利安人。各种姓有它的世袭的职业，不许被婚姻混乱，尤其严禁首陀罗和别的种姓混乱。对首陀罗男子和别的种姓女子结合所生的混血种，特别订有法律， 给予一种贱名，如首陀罗男子与婆罗门女子的混血种名为旃陀罗（Candala)。他们的地位最低贱，不能与一般人接触，被称为“不可触者”。这种人世世代代操着当时认为下贱的职 业，如抬死尸、屠宰、当刽子手之类。种姓制度不仅订在法 律里面，而且神圣不可动摇地规定在宗教教义和教条中。在婆罗门教势力强盛的“中国”地方，种姓制度最严格。 33 Q: What is the caste system？ A: The caste system was created with the entry of Aryans into India. The word "caste" is used to translate the Sanskrit word "Varna" (P. Vanna). Its original meaning was "color" or "quality". According to their theory, white-skinned Aryans were a superior race; the dark colored Dravidians and other aborigines were inferior races. At first, this system was used to distinguish between Aryan and non-Aryan peoples. Subsequently, with the developing division of trades and occupations, the caste distinction formerly used for separating Aryans from non-Aryans also found reflection among Aryans themselves. Hence the division of four castes: the highest caste was Brahmana, the class of priests who administered religious rites, and educational and cultural affairs (some of them later became kings). The next was Ksatriya, the class of kings and warriors who administered military and political affairs; the third was Vaisya, composed of merchants, artisans and peasants engaged in farm work; and the fourth was Ŝūdra, composed of farm laborers, herdsmen, servants and slaves. The first three castes were Aryan and the last one non-Aryan. Each caste had its own hereditary occupations and were not permitted to inter-marry, and in particular, any mixing between Ŝūdras and other castes was strictly prohibited. There were special laws governing the offspring of Ŝūdra males and females of other castes. For instance, the shameful title of Candala was given to the child born of a Ŝūdra male and a Brahmin female.The status of Candala was the most degraded and since they were not allowed physical contact with others, they were known as the "untouchables". From generation to generation, these people took the humblest jobs such as corpse-carriers, butchers, and executioners. The caste system was not only enacted in laws but also unshakably regulated by religious doctrines and tenets. In Madhya Deŝa, the caste system was most strictly enforced under the powerful influence of Brahmanism. 34问：在新兴国家地方也有种姓制度吗？ 答：随着雅利安人势力的扩展，这些国家都不能不受到婆罗门文 化的影响，当然也都存在着种姓制度，但种姓制度所遇到的困难就比较多得多。第一，在这些国家里，土著人民占的比率大；第二，雅利安与非雅利安种族混合情况比较普遍；第三，为了巩固雅利安人在那些地方的统治，有不少土著部族的首领通过入教仪式被安排在刹帝利种姓之列。在种姓制度下，统治阶层的婆罗门和刹帝利之间一向存在着矛盾，尤其是非雅利安人的刹帝利对婆罗门的优越地位的反抗，更加显著。据研究，摩揭陀国的人多半是吠舍和首陀罗的混血种， 婆罗门法典认为他们是半雅利安、半野蛮的下等种族。后来 统一印度的摩揭陀国阿育王，据说就是首陀罗的血统。在这 种环境中，反对婆罗门种姓制度教义的学说，容易为大众所 接受和欢迎，而释迦牟尼倡导的“四姓平等"之说，事实上反映着当时那些新兴国家的人民对种姓制度的不满。 34 Q: Did the caste system exist in the newly emerging countries too？ A: With the extension of Aryan influence, these states could not but be affected by the Brahmanic culture. Although the caste system entered there, it encountered quite a lot of obstacles. Firstly, the original inhabitants were in the majority in these states. Secondly, miscegenation between Aryan and non-Aryan races was relatively common. Thirdly, in order to consolidate the Aryan domination in those areas, quite a few aboriginal chiefs were inducted into the caste of Ksatriya through embracing rituals. Under the caste system, there were always rivalries between the ruling castes, Brahmanas and Ksatriyas. This was particularly strong between the non-Aryan Ksatriyas and the Brahmanas who held the superior position. Research shows that most people of Magadha came from miscegenation of Vaiŝyas and Ŝūdras, therefore, they were regarded as an inferior race— semi-aryan and semi-barbarian—by Brahmanic code. It is said that King Aśoka of Magadha who later on unified India had Ŝūdra blood. In this environment any theories against the Brahmin ideas of the caste system would easily be accepted and welcomed. The doctrine advocated by Sakyamuni saying that "all four castes are equal," mirrored the resentment of people in the newly emerging states towards the caste system. 35问：释迦是不是雅利安种？ 答：关于释迦的种族问题，有不同的说法，有的说是蒙古种， 有的说是雅利安种。但是从当时的地理看，迦毗罗国地处僻 远，又是小国（有人研究，认为它当时是拘萨罗国的附庸国）, 因此它的王族不是雅利安种的可能性较大，而且佛经上不只一次说释迦牟尼的身体是紫金色，这可以为释迦族不属于白色的雅利安种的一个论据。 35.Did the Sakyas belong to the Aryan race？ A: Concerning Sakya's ethnic origin, there are different opinions. Some hold the view that it was of the Mongolian race, and others, Aryan. But as far as the geography of that time is concerned, Kapilavatthu was located in a remote area and was a small state (some believe it was a dependency of Kosala). It is less likely that its royal family was of the Aryan race. Besides, in Buddhist scriptures there is more than one reference to Sakyamuni having a golden purple body, thus providing further grounds for arguing that the Sakyas were not a white Aryan race. 36问：能不能说当时种姓制度问题上的矛盾纯粹是种族的矛盾？ 答：不能那么说。据我看，它还反映着当时社会生产力的发展所带来的矛盾。 36 Q: Can it be said that caste contradictions at that time were simply a reflection of ethnic contradictions？ A: Not exactly. As I see it, it also reflected the contradictions brought about by the development of social productivity at that time. 37问：释迦牟尼时代印度的社会是不是奴隶社会？ 答：近代在印度河流域的发掘，证明在公元前3500—公元前 2750年之间，那里的土著民族（可能就是达罗毗荼族），早 已有了惊人的城市文明。他们有城市规划，有下水道，有两 三层砖建楼房，有公私浴室。街道上有货摊和店铺，有纺织 业和陶业。这个事实推翻了西方学者们一向认定印度文明是 雅利安人带来的说法。事实上是游牧民族的雅利安人接受了 土著的高级文明。根据发掘的材料来看，当时土著民族已经 进入了奴隶社会，而且可以断定他们有了相当发达的农业。 至于雅利安人定居下来很长时期（约一千年）以后，到了种 姓制度确立了的时期，那里的社会是否仍然是奴隶社会，值 得研究。从婆罗门的法典看来，首陀罗并不是奴隶，只是有 一部分人当奴隶，而奴隶只是从事杂役劳动，在生产部门 很少参加，显然奴隶不是主要生产者，因此很难断定当时 是奴隶社会。 37 Q: Was Indian society at the time of Sakyamuni a slave society？ A: Recent excavations in the Indus Valley show that as early as 3500- 2750 BC, the aborigines there (probably the Dravidians) already had a remarkable urban civilization. They had city planning, with sewerage, two or three-storied brick buildings, and public or private baths. Along the streets, there were stalls and shops. A textile industry as well as a ceramics industry existed. This fact strongly refutes the suggestion of Western scholars that the Indian civilization was brought in by Aryans. As a matter of fact, it is the nomadic Aryans who accepted the higher civilization of the original inhabitants. In the light of the excavations, the aboriginal society at that time was a slave society, and it may be concluded that they had already considerably advanced agriculture. As to the period from the settling down of the Aryans, up to the establishment of the caste system (about 1,000 years), we need to study whether it was still a slave society. According to the Brahmanic code, Ŝūdra did not mean slave, only some members of that caste were slaves who were engaged in odd jobs, taking very little part in production. It is apparent that slaves were not the main labor power. Therefore, it is hard to assert that this was still a slave society. 38问：据你看当时是什么制度的社会呢？ 答：佛经中的资料记载，当时国王每年有一固定的日期，在自己的田地里举行亲耕仪式，人民都在替他耕田。这与婆罗门的法典规定的靠自己劳动为生的首陀罗人要以劳动向国王纳税的条文相合。根据我国古代译师的注释，“刹帝利”的原来字义是“田主”。从这个线索来推断，似乎“种姓”制度开始完备地确立的时期，印度已经进入了封建领主统治的农奴社会。而到了释迦牟尼时代，在新兴的国家里，情形又有所 演变。根据佛经的资料，当时旳商业很发达，有相当规模的陆运和航运的商队，商人掌握着雄厚的经济力量，例如把一座林园送给佛的大富商须达多，他有力量以黄金布地和拘萨 罗的王子比富。手工业也很发达，有细密的分工，自由经营 的小工商业在生产上占重要地位。当时有了纳税的自由农民，有佃农。可以设想，在吠舍人和首陀罗人混合种族的新 兴国家里，刹帝利可能不是领主，而是新兴地主阶级的代 表。印度在公元前一千年间已经有了铁器，到这时期，铁制农业器具更已普遍使用，农业上生产力有了很大的发展。在当时的经济情况下，封建领主的割据，是不利于商业、手工 业、特别是农业的发展的。历史证明，统一兴修水利和灌溉系统是促成阿育王统一印度的重要原因。虽然阿育王是佛逝世二百年以后的人，但是佛在世时，人们就有“转轮王统一 天下”的理想。佛幼年时，他的父王和国人曾期望他做转轮王。佛虽然舍弃了王位，但是他也推崇转轮王这样的理想人 物。“转轮王”思想，实际是反映着当时一般人要求有一个中央集权政府来代替领主割据的愿望，这个要求和愿望必然和种姓制度发生冲突。 38 Q: In your opinion, what was the prevailing social system at that time？ A: It is recorded in the Buddhist scriptures that there was a fixed time each year during which the king presided over a ploughing ceremony in the fields, and the people tilled for him. This agrees with the clause of the Brahmin codes, which stipulates that the Sudras who lived off their own labor should pay taxes to the king through offering their labor. According to the notes made by the ancient Chinese translators, Ksatriya originally meant "land owner". It may be inferred from this that by the time the caste system began to be well established, India had entered into a society of serfdom ruled by feudal lords. By the time of Sakyamuni, more changes had occurred in the newly emerging states. The Buddhist literature suggests that commerce at that time was flourishing with large-scale trade caravans and mercantile fleets. Thus merchants had solid economic strength. For instance, a very rich merchant named Sudatta, who made a gift of a garden to the Buddha, was of such great wealth that he compared riches with the prince of Kosala by paving the whole garden with gold. Handicrafts flourished too, with fine division of labor. Small enterprises of industry and commerce operated freely and played an important role in productive activities. At that time there emerged tax-paying free peasants as well as tenant farmers. It is conceivable that, in the newly emerging states where the majority was of the mixed castes of Vaiŝyas and Ŝūdras, Ksatriyas might not have been serf-owners, but representatives of a newly emerging landlord class. As early as 1,000 BC ironware appeared in India, and in this period, iron farm tools were widely used, and agricultural productivity was greatly increased. Under these economic circumstances, partitioning by feudal lords was unfavorable to the development of commerce, of handicrafts and of agriculture in particular. History shows that the centralized construction of water conservancy and irrigation works was important in King Aśokas unification of India.Even during the Buddhas lifetime, 200 years before Aśoka, people had already cherished the ideal of "one world unified by the wheel-turning king" (Raja Cakkavattin). In his childhood, the Buddha’s father and compatriots hoped he would become the wheel- turning king. The Buddha, though forsaking his throne, held the ideal of a wheel-turning king. The idea was indeed a reflection of the peoples common aspiration to have a centralized government to replace the state of division by the feudal lords. This desire inevitably came into conflict with the caste system. 39问：释迦牟尼和婆罗门、刹帝利的关系怎样？ 答：释迦牟尼是公开宣布反对婆罗门教义的，所以一生遭到婆罗 门攻击的事很多。但是也有不少婆罗门教徒和学者改变了原来的信仰而归依了他。婆罗门人受了佛教的剌激，就有 《摩奴法典》的出现。这部法典一方面固然是为了维护种姓制度，一方面也可能作了一些修正。在《摩奴法典》里攻击佛教的文句虽不明显，但后出的《述记氏法论》则把攻击佛教的态度明白地表示出来。至于佛和刹帝利的关系，你知道，佛是出身于刹帝利种姓的。当时佛所游化的那些国家的国王们，如摩揭陀国的频毗娑罗王，拘萨罗国的波斯匿王等，都是他的信徒和有力的支持者。后来阿育王更大弘佛 法。应当说，新兴国家的刹帝利对佛是极其尊重信仰的。值得注意的是，佛经中提到四姓时，改变了原来以婆罗门为首的次序（即婆罗门、刹帝利、吠舍、首陀罗），而把婆罗门放在刹帝利之后，这是违反传统习惯的，由此也可以看出他 贬抑婆罗门地位的态度。 39 Q: What was the relationship between Sakyamuni and Brahmins, and between Sakyamuni and Ksatriyas？ A: Sakyamuni publicly opposed Brahmanic doctrines, so he was subject to numerous attacks by the Brahmins during his lifetime. Nevertheless,a large number of Brahmin scholars and followers gave up their original beliefs and turned to the Buddha. The Brahmanas, in response to Buddhism, issued the Manu Code (Manu-Smrti), which, while upholding the caste system, made some amendments to it. Although the Manu Code did not overtly attack Buddhism, the subsequent Manuals of Public and Domestic Rites (Sarvadarŝana Samgraha) expressed an explicitly offensive attitude against Buddhism. As to the relationship between the Buddha and the Ksatriyas, as you know, the Buddha came from the Ksatriya caste. The kings of those states where he traveled and preached, such as Bimbisara of Magadha, Prasenajit of Kosala and others were his faithful followers and strong supporters. At a later time after the Buddha, King Aśoka more energetically promulgated the Buddha Dhamma. It should be concluded that the Kŝatriyas of the newly emerging states had great esteem for and staunch faith in the Buddha. It is worth notice that in the Buddhist texts, whenever mention is made of the four castes, Brahman is put after Ksatriya. That is contrary to the traditional order in which Brahmin came the first (i.e. Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaiŝya and Ŝūdra). From this break with the tradition, one can see the Buddhas depreciation of the Brahmins, position. 40问：释迦牟尼和平民的关系怎样？ 答：释迦牟尼教化的方式是接近平民的。他说法不用婆罗门的雅语，而用当时平民的俗语，就是一个例子。前面说过释迦牟尼曾经接受一个首陀罗人优波离为弟子，佛的兄弟和儿子在僧团内行次在他之下，他们都得向优波离礼拜。对一般人不肯接触的旃陀罗人，佛和弟子们平等接受他们的供养。佛曾经设法和一个不敢见他的旃陀罗人相见，并为他说法。佛对待所有不幸的人都是这样。他的弟子中有乞丐，也有妓女，有一次，佛谢绝了国王的邀请，而到一个不幸的堕落的女人 那里去应供。在古代印度社会里，妇女的地位和奴隶差不多。佛接受妇女为出家弟子，让她们参加僧团的事实，被认 为是宗教史上一个很大的革命举动。 40: What was the relationship between Sakyamuni and the common people？ A: Sakyamuni's style of teaching was close to the common people. Instead of the elegant language of the Brahmins, he used the vernacular language. As was mentioned earlier, Sakyamuni accepted a Ŝūdra named Upali to be his disciple to whom the Buddhas brothers and son had to pay homage since their ranks in the Sangha were lower than his. The Buddha and his disciples accepted on equal footing the offerings contributed by the Candalas, or the untouchables, with whom other people were reluctant to make physical contact. The Buddha contrived to meet a Candala and preach to him when he was too shy to come and see the Buddha.In the same way the Buddha treated all the unfortunates. Among his disciples were beggars and prostitutes. The Buddha, on one occasion, rejected an invitation from a king and went to take a dana offered by an unfortunately degenerated woman. In ancient Indian society, the status of women was akin to that of slaves. The fact that the Buddha admitted women into the Sangha Order as his monastic disciples is considered a great revolution in religious history. 41问：佛虽然对不幸的人们表示同情，但是他没有教他们向统治者 进行反抗，不是吗？ 答：诚然，佛没有教他们以怎样的实际行动反抗统治者。佛主要 教导人们断除内心的烦恼，以求解脱，同时又说现世止恶行善的因，会获得来世安乐的果，在这方面可以说，佛对现实生活问题，是抱着容忍的态度的。但是，他在思想上推倒了婆罗门的神权，宣布众生平等，说出“诸法无常”的真理，对当时的社会起了进步的作用。 41 Q: Although he had sympathy with the unfortunate and suffering people, isn’t it true that the Buddha did not advise them to revolt against their rulers？ A: True. The Buddha did not instruct people what action to take against their rulers, and although on the one hand, it may be said he advocated forbearance in real life since he mainly taught people how to eliminate their inner worries and attain deliverance and said to them that desisting from evil and doing wholesome deeds in the present world would bring happiness to future life as effect; on the other hand, his thought played a positive role in society at the time because he repudiated the theory of Brahamin theocracy, proclaimed the equal position of all beings and revealed the truth of impermanence of everything (anicca). 42问：当时思想界的情况怎样？ 答：和我国春秋战国时代相仿佛，当时印度思想界也正处在一个 “百家争鸣"的时期。总的说来，当时思想界有两大潮流，一个是正统的婆罗门教思想的潮流，一个是异端的反婆罗门教思想的潮流，佛教属于后者。 42 Q: What was the situation in the ideological domain in India at that time？ A: Similar to the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Period in Chinese history, there was a period of "a hundred schools of thought in contention". Generally speaking, there existed two major ideological trends: one was the school of orthodox Brahmanist thought, and the other, various schools of heretical anti-Brahman thought. Buddhism belonged to the latter. 43问：婆罗门教的基本思想是什么？ 答：婆罗门教是多神教而又带着一神教的色彩，崇拜各种自然的神祇，盛行祭祀祈祷以招福禳灾，而以梵（Brahma ）为创造宇宙万物的主宰。梵从口生出婆罗门，从肩部生出刹帝利，从腹部生出吠舍，从足部生出首陀罗，以此定四姓的贵贱，这就成为种姓制度的根据。人应当服从梵天的意旨，因此应当信奉《吠陀经》，奉事婆罗门，严格遵守种姓制度。后来 婆罗门教义有所发展，它把“梵”抽象起来做为宇宙的本体，或宇宙生起的最高原理，一方面又从个人观察，认为“我” 是个人的主宰和本体，人的身体由“我”而生，人的活动由“我”而起，外界万物也都因“我”而存在，由此推论出“我” 与“梵”本来不二，人所应当努力的就是经过修行以达到梵我一致的境地，这样才能免去轮回之苦而得到大自在。 43 Q: What were the fundamental ideas of Brahmanism？ A: Brahmanism was polytheism with monotheistic leanings. It worshipped various deities of nature, offered sacrifices and prayers for blessings and warding off calamities, but believed in Brahma as the superior lord who created the entire universe. Brahma gave birth to Brahmanas from his mouth, Ksatriyas from his shoulder, Vaisyas from his abdomen and Ŝūdras from his feet. Thus, the social standing of the four castes, noble or humble, was decided according to this. And thus people had to abide by the will of Brahma and keep faith in Veda. Ordinary people had to serve Brahmins, and strictly obey the caste system.With the development of Brahmanist doctrines, on one hand Brahma was recognized as the noumenon of the universe or the ultimate principle of origin of the universe in the abstract sense; on the other hand, viewed from the individual, Atta (S. Atman, Ego) was considered the dominator and noumenon of the individual, the personal body as well as ones actions. Thus the phenomena of the external world also arise from Atta. Hence an inference: Brahma and Atta should not be two but one and the same. So what people had to strive to reach was a state of harmony between Atta and Brahma through self-cultivation. In this way, theycould avoid the suffering of samsara and attain ultimate emancipation. 44问：当时反婆罗门教的思想有多少派别？ 答：根据佛经所说有九十六种之多，最特出的有六个教派，佛经 称这些教派的创立者为六师。其中一个就是耆那教（Jaina ) 的始祖尼乾子（Nigantha Nataputta )，其余五人是富兰那迦 叶(Purana Kassapa )、末迦梨（Makkhali Gosala )、阿耆多(Ajita Kesakambala 婆鸠多（Pakudha Kaccŝyana )、散若夷（Sanjaya Belatthiputta )。除耆那教现还存在、有典籍可考外，其余五人都没有正式记载，现在只能从反驳他们学说的 其他教派典籍中看到一鳞一爪。他们有的是否认因果关系的 怀疑论者；有的主张纵欲；有的主张苦行；有的认为人由四 大（地、水、火、风四个元素）组合而成，死后四大分散， 归于断灭，否认来世，是唯物论者。 44. Q: How many anti-Brahmanic schools were there at that time？ A: Buddhist texts mention as many as 96 anti-Brahman schools, six of which were outstanding and whose founders were known in the texts as the Six Teachers. One among the six was Nigantha Nataputta, the founding father of Jaina. The other five were Pūrana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambala, Pakudha Kaccayana and Sanjaya Belatthiputta. Of all these schools only Jaina still exists and has texts one can research. The others have no proper records, but fragments of information can be gleaned from the books of the rival schools, which challenged their doctrines. Some of them were sceptics denying the relations of cause and effect; some stood for carnal desires; while others advocated ascetic practices; and still others were materialists who believed that human beings were composed of four Mahabhūta (i.e. the four elements of earth, water, fire and air), which would decompose and vanish after death with no prospect of future life. 45问：佛教和各教派的关系怎样 答：佛教一方面批判婆罗门教义，同时也反对非婆罗门教的各教 派。但是佛教和婆罗门教以及各教派的思想都有渊源，佛教接受了他们的某些思想，而根据“缘起”和“业”的理论，予以另一种解释。如“三世因果”（前世造因，今世受果，今世造因，来世受果）、“六道轮回”（随着自己善恶行 为，或生天界而为天人，或生人界而为人，或为阿修罗－－种和天人差不多的好战斗的神，或为畜生，或为鬼，或 地狱。一切众生永远升沉于天、人、阿修罗、地狱、鬼、 生六道中，犹如车轮没有始终地转着，所以叫做轮回）、“四大和合”（地、水、火、风四元素）等等，并接受了关于天文地理的某些传统说法。 对婆罗门教的神祇，佛教也没有否定他们的存在，只是贬抑他们的地位，当作一种众生看待，认为他们也不免轮回生死之苦，如对于梵天，认为只是天界中的天人，将来也会 堕地狱。关于这些，以后还可以谈。 45 Q: What was the relationship between Buddhism and other religious schools or sects？ A: Buddhism not only repudiated the creeds of the Brahmanists but also opposed those of the various non-Brahmanic schools. However, Buddhism, Brahmanism and other religions had some common ideological sources. Although it adopted certain ideas from other schools, Buddhism rendered new interpretations according to its own theories of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada) and Kamma. For example, “cause and effect of three periods of time” (Hetu-phala of tayo addha) teaches that actions in the past life lead to the present affect, and actions in the present life will produce an effect in future life; and the theory of “cycles of rebirth in the six realms”, which teaches that on the basis of ones own wholesome or unwholesome deeds one might be reborn in heaven as a deity,or on earth as a human being, or become an asura—a bellicose deity-like creature, or an animal, or a ghost, or be born in hell; all sentient beings circulate perpetually up and down, just like a rolling wheel, through the six realms (gatis) of heaven (deva-gati), human world (manussa-gati), asura realm (asuratta), hell (naraka-gati), ghost realm (peta-gati) and animal world (tiracchana-yonika), in endlessly repeated cycles of rebirth or reincarnation (samsara); and the theory of the blending components of four elements (cattari mahabhūta), which are earth, water, fire and air. Buddhism also accepted some traditional notions about astronomy and geography. With regard to gods of Brahmanism, Buddhism did not deny their existence, but degraded their status to that of sentient beings and believed that they also could not escape the sufferings of samsara. As for Brahma, Buddhism deemed it a deity in the deva-gati, who might fall into hell. We can return to these questions later.
| 
发表于 2019-2-4 11:02:35
收藏
转播
分享
淘帖
楼主